Cause and Effect Website

The Cause and Effect Website gave an introduction to Casual Arguments. Upon reading further into the web site, I understood that the site explained what casual arguments were. Casual arguments are basically made when something occurs because of something else: a cause and an effect.

Casual arguments are similar to inductive arguments. Both use cause and effect. The premise and the claim have no significant difference. However, casual arguments have a significant difference for each party involved.

The web site provided three key factors of a casual argument:

1. How acceptable or demonstrable the implied comparison is

2. How likely the case of causation seems to be

3. How credible the “significant difference” or “only significant commonality” claims are.

The website and its exercises have proven to help me understand casual argument/cause and effect better and make it easier to identify and apply it to my every day arguments and thoughts. 

Cause

Chapter 15 discusses: What is the Cause? This section was about looking at the root causes an argument could be divided into sections to clarify each part of a cause. First, causes and effects discussed the statement “Spot caused me to wake up”. The relationship between Spot and Dick is what the cause was. The second part was about the normal condition, which is the unstated claims that are obvious and plausible. The third part is about particular causes, generalization, and general causes. Particular causes happen in correlation: every time this happens that happens. There was also the section about the cause that precedes the effect. This part pointed out the preceded part of the cause that Spot barked and then Dick woke up. The cause makes a difference was the fifth section. This discussed how sometimes the correlations are not enough there needs to be an “if” involved. The sixth section is overlooking a common cause. The seventh was about tracing the cause backwards which was looking at what caused the dog to bark. The eighth section gave criteria for cause and effect which summarized what is necessary for cause and effect. The ninth section was about what mistakes could be made when evaluating cause and effect: reversing cause and effect or looking to hard for a cause.

Mission Critical

The Mission Critical website was very helpful because it is a review of the past semester’s work. The website serves as a tool that goes over most of the topics that we have discussed in the book with additional topics. Vagueness and ambiguity was the concept that was brought up that I had to clear up. Vagueness and ambiguity can be difficult to understand, but I was able to figure out the differences between these concepts. It is difficult to understand because vagueness and ambiguity seem to have similar definitions.  Something that is vague is defined as something that is general, and unclear.  Something that is ambiguous has the ability to have a variety of different meanings. 

An example of vagueness is shown in this sentence:

That is a hot spot to hang around.

This is an example of vagueness because it is unclear that the location is actually hot in temperature, but in terms of slang it means that the place is a popular place to be.

An example of ambiguity is shown in this sentence:

The grass is always greener on the other side.

This is an example of ambiguity because this can be interpreted in different ways. One, that the grass is a different shade of green on the other side. Two, there is always something better for you. It depends on how you perceive this sentence.

Reasoning by the Law

In Chapter 12 of Epstein, it discusses how Reasoning by Analogy is used in the law. The section explained that in law these type of arguments are the most used because it gives a chance for lawyers to provide details, that are carefully analyzed arguments. SInce laws are vague and not specific it is difficult for the Supreme Court, federal courts, state courts, county courts, and local courts. 
The most common Reasoning by Analogy used in the law is reasoning by example. It is used based on a case for case basis. Edward H. Levi’s An Introduction to Legal Reasoning, discusses how "any case sets a precedent for other cases. By setting a precedent with any law the law becomes more specific based on the ruling of the judge." There are always cases that are later over ruled. The most important case in which this occured was Brown v. The Board of Education. The case allowed the “equal but separate” precedent for many cases until nearly a hundred years later when the case was considered wrong.

Argument by Analogy

Argument by Analogy was the reasoning I had a difficulty with learning. I think I was over thinking what it could mean so I was looking past the simple meaning behind it.If one were to argue by analogy one would claim that certain things share similar characteristics in common. When encountering an analogy, we must analyze whether the analogy is a good argument or not by using these guideline and questions. These are the steps/questions used to help as a guideline in evaluating analogies:

• Is this an argument? What is the conclusion? 
• What is the comparison? 
• What are the premises? (one or both sides of the comparison) 
• What are the similarities
• Can we state the similarities as premises and find a general principle that covers the two sides?
• Does the general principle really apply to both sides? Do the differences matter?
• Is the argument strong or valid? Is it good?

Different Types of Reasoning

Different types of reasoning allow us to have different kinds of effect on individuals with the way we reason. 

1.             Reasoning by analogy draws conclusions from comparing similar things when it is part of an argument. If one thing is one way with the other thing, the same should be for objects of a similar relationship. 


Example:    Premise #1: My friends all sing.

Premise#2: My sisters all sing.

Conclusion: Everyone I know are singers.

2.             Sign reasoning is similar to judging a book by its cover because it draws conclusions due to appearance or other indicators. 

           Example: Parent: You have to be home tonight to do the dishes.

Child: I can’t tonight I have work all day.

Parent: All right, just make sure it’s clean by lunch tomorrow. 

Child: Okay, I’ll do it in the morning.

3.             Causal reasoning uses cause and effect.


Example: Premise #1: I woke up late for school.

Premise#2: I did not have time to eat breakfast this morning.

Conclusion: I was hungry all morning after arriving late to school.

4.             Reasoning by criteria uses established criteria for future conclusions.


Example: Your big sister would want something meaningful and thoughtful. You should make her something.

5.             Reasoning by example uses other valid examples for arguments.

Example: Ron practices dancing everyday. If you want to dance as well as Ron you should practice more.

6.             Inductive reasoning uses past observations to make

conclusions or generalizations, with the probability that it is could be false. 


Example: Premise #1: Dance practice is on Tuesdays.

Premise#2: Today is Monday.

Conclusion: There is no dance practice tonight.

7.          Deductive reasoning is the opposite of inductive reasoning in that it uses generalizations for specific claims. 


Example: Premise #1: There are many attractions in

Disneyland.

Premise#2: The World of Color shows at night.

Conclusion: The Word of Color is one of the many attractions at Disneyland.

Appeal to Fear Exercise 3

When I think of the Appeal to Fear approach and how it is used through advertising, I automatically think about above the influence or anti-smoking commercials. I believe that these advertisements are very powerful and can grab the attention of any average teenager and have them reflect on their habits; I can say that every above the influence advertisement or anti-smoking commercial that I have ever seen has caused me to reflect on my habits, as well as, the habits of my friends. In these advertisements, teenagers are put into fear about ruining their lives, losing themselves, getting a hole in their throat, having damaged lungs, second-handedly hurting the people they love or even strangers around them, being a victim of all sorts of cancers, and of course dying of an early age.

In this particular ad I found (1st picture), a girl is passed out and drawn all over. This presents the conclusion of drug and alcohol abuse. This is a good argument because the premises and conclusion are true based on strong examples given. The next picture is a creative ad that demonstrates how smoking lessens the time you have alive.

Apple Polishing

Throughout chapter 10 in Epstein's book, we learned about the Appeal to Emotion and the different aspects that it is made up of.  One of the concepts that I thought was interesting was Apple Polishing, which is a particular way of using the Appeal to Vanity approach in arguments. Apple Polishing is a type of argument that makes someone feel good. It’s where a person uses flattery, and excessive compliments, in an attempt to win support for their side. In my opinion, apple-polishing is just kissing up. An example of this approach in action is when a good-looking advertiser is selling a new dietary fiber bar or snack to an overweight woman. The advertisement can brown-nose the buyer by telling them that they actually look slimmer and that their product will be beneficial to their amazing figure and will keep them in shape, when in reality the product probably has a lot of sugar and what not and would not help the buyer's diet. The overweight buyer will fall into the sweet talk and spend.

Appeal to Emotion:Pity

Epstein defines Appeal to Emotion as a premise that says you should believe or do something because you feel a certain way.  Breaking down emotional appeal into detail to understand it better, we learn that there are specific ways used to win people over with their emotions. Appeal to Pity caught my attention. When advertisers are trying to sell a product or trying to help a cause, they aim to melt the buyers heart and make them feel bad enough to support their cause or buy their product. We see a lot of this in TV Commercials. A well-known example of an advertisement using the approach of appealing to pity would be an ASPCA commercial. This commercial uses images of abused, hurt, and battered animals that are in desperate need of help. "Arms of an Angel" by Sarah McLachlan also plays as background music and enhances the emotional pity. Using this approach, animal lovers and pet owners can connect and be moved because of what they see; they have pity for these animals and no longer want to see domestic violence and decide to support the cause.